Module: HST5350 The American Century: The History of the United States, 1900-2000
By Neve Amaro
Beginning in the 1950s, the civil rights era was the historic movement led by African American activists fighting towards racial equality. Known posthumously around the world, civil rights activists Dr Martin Luther King, and Malcolm X are coined as two of the most influential, yet controversial men of the 20th century. Both of these dominant figures shared the common goal of acquiring prosperity for African Americans, yet their measures in achieving so were starkly averse to one another. As a result of their opposing ideologies, there’s often the idea of a presumed rivalry between both of the two, yet the reality shows otherwise. Though they shared a difference in opinion, its often forgotten that they also shared a significant amount of similarities. Towards the end of both their lives, they shared immense respect for one another, and even considered possibly working together, though it was something America would never see. In the time they lived, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr made it their life mission to break a system of racial disparity, and establish equality-based foundations for African Americans.
Born and raised in Atlanta, Georgia into the middle class, Martin Luther King grew up with instilled values of Christianity taught by a Baptist family upbringing. His Christian background later partly established the foundation of his non-violent peaceful approach towards civil rights. As the recipient of a bachelor’s degree at just 19 years old, and doctoral degree at age 26, Martin Luther King Jr’s formal education prepared him to become the articulate speaker he was known as. His prominence began following the arrest of Rosa Parks when she refused to give up her seat to a white bus rider in Montgomery Alabama. Subsequently he was catapulted as the leader of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and led the Montgomery bus boycotts of 1955-1956. Successfully, the intercession resulted in segregation becoming unlawful within public transportation in America.
Today, he is recognised as a celebrated figure who courageously led the battle in civil rights. His eloquence and articulation echoes still today through popular speeches such as ‘I Have A Dream’ and ‘I’ve been to the Mountaintop.’ Yet, in the civil rights era he was a controversial figure, who became one of the most surveilled men under the Federal Bureau of Investigation. ‘In 1963, the FBI wrote in a memo that Dr. King was dangerous and should be marked by the agency. Years of surveillance followed, with the FBI even sending Dr. King a threatening letter apparently urging him to commit suicide.’ To America’s government, he was a threat to national security, and a disturbance to the life they were accustomed to. ‘In 1966, a year after Selma and the passage of the Voting Rights Act, only 36% of white people said King was helping the cause. Eighty-five percent of white people surveyed said that demonstrations by Negroes on civil rights hurt the advancement of that cause, while 30% of black respondents felt the same. Seventy-two percent of Americans had an unfavourable view of King.’[1]
Despite this, Martin Luther King never allowed negativity from pursuing his courageous goal towards equality. Highly inspired by the usage of non-violent demonstrations by Mahatma Ghandi in India, Martin Luther King’s principle to achieve racial equality was centered around non-violent, peaceful social movements. Believing in the ability to have a racially integrated society, he advocated for the unification of blacks and whites in America. ‘I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.’[2]
Opposed to the beliefs of leaders such as Malcolm X and Stokley Carmichael, Martin Luther King Jr believed violence within social movements would only backpedal the advancement towards equality for African Americans. In his book ‘Strength to Love,’ he writes-
Hate begets hate; violence begets violence; toughness begets a greater toughness. We must meet the forces of hate with the power of love... Our aim must never be to defeat or humiliate the white man, but to win his friendship and understanding.[3]
As a visionary he established meticulous strategies to use in the movement. Most credit his strategy of non-violent protests solely on his background as a minister, though in reality his ‘nonviolent’ approach was strategic and deliberate. King Jr tactically changed the narrative of African Americans often presented by the media, by exposing the violence and hatred being inflicted on peaceful protestors during marches and sit ins. When television became a prominent part of family homes in the 1950s, King Jr understood that ‘it would not be enough to talk about the black experience in America. White Americans, through televisions, would now have to see, with their own eyes, the horrors enacted.[4] While law enforcement officers violently intervened and attacked peaceful protestors, deeply embedded racial hatred so widely kept in legislature and tradition was exposed. Americans were no longer being forced to believe the concept of oppression, instead they were watched it happen in real time. It was impossible to continue avoiding the conversation of racial discrimination.
To some degree this strategy began working, because some states began providing adequate and fair media coverage around the civil rights movement. Yet, other parts of America were far more difficult to convince, specifically the southern states- who particularly favored segregation. In his 1964 book ‘Why We Can’t Wait,’ he recounted how the southern media referenced the civil rights movement as ill timed. King Jr writes ‘the words bad timing came to be ghosts haunting our every move in Birmingham. ..Above all they did not realise that it was ridiculous to speak of timing when the clock of history showed that the negro had already suffered one hundred years of delay.’ [5]
Overall, Martin Luther King Jr’s efforts were successful towards his goal of equality. From a legislation perspective, his two largest accomplishments were The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ‘outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin,[6]’ and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which ‘removed the barrier to black enfranchisement banning poll taxes, literacy tests, and other measures that effectively prevented African Americans from voting.’[7]
By stark contrast, Malcolm X held a different role within civil rights than Martin Luther King Jr. As a firm believer in the ideology of Black Nationalism, Malcolm X advocated in favour for racial segregation and self-preservation. Often, he is regarded as a much more radical figure when compared to Martin Luther King Jr because of his 12-year relationship with the Nation of Islam, and its leader Elijah Muhammed. Critics of Malcolm X claim his as being a non-significant figure who provided no development towards the civil rights movement. Yet, they fail to realise his victories within civil rights extend beyond any legislative action. His strong advocacy of black empowerment established the groundwork for the Civil Rights Act, Voting Rights Act, and the formation of the Black Panther Movement. Malcolm X’s background is of particular interest when understanding how he came to be ‘the angriest black man in America’ and even one of the FBI’s most surveilled.
Born in Omaha Nebraska, Malcolm X was raised by two parents who were noted as avid Marcus Garvey supporters. At the age of six Malcolm X brutally learned the severity of racial hatred within America when his father was presumably killed by the white supremacist group- the Black Legion. In addition to his father, Malcolm X had four uncles who also were killed at the hands of white supremacists. This led his mother to become institutionalized, and forced him to enter the foster care system. As a young adult, he remained determined to make something of his life, and envisioned himself as a lawyer, but was told he never could, because he a ‘negro.’ The severe trauma he endured throughout childhood and into young adult life steered Malcolm X into a life of crime that later landed him a ten-year imprisonment. It was in prison that Malcolm X began to admire the Nation of Islam and its radical leader Elijah Muhammed. Over the course of twelve years he increased the population of the Nation of Islam from 400 members to 50,000 members[8], and became the face of the Nation of Islam.
Most notably, Malcolm X is described as a black nationalist who advocated for the use of self-defense. The idea of black nationalism is described as ‘a form of political nationalism sought to separate black people and economic nationalism sought to break down racial barristers through developing economic strength in the black community.’[9]
Contrary to the popular belief Malcolm X never incited violence, and can’t be credited to any one explicit act of violence. Often misconstrued as a declaration of violence, his ‘by any means necessary’ stance in civil rights was established not to incite unnecessary violence, but as the phrase implies- to realise equality for African Americans through necessary means.
Critics who believe that Malcolm X provided no accomplishment for African Americans fail to question how someone who ‘provided no substantial change for African Americas’ could be celebrated so highly since his death. Malcolm X introduced black pride to African Americans in the 1950s and onward, who for centuries have constantly been disregarded as human beings, and insignificant. Towards the end of his life, he had left the Nation of Islam, and cut his ties entirely with Elijah Muhammed and followed Islam, subsequentially changing his attitude and advocacy for what he previously believed. At the Oxford Union Debate of 1964, he stated ‘I have been misinformed. I don’t believe in any form of apartheid. I don’t believe in segregation.’[10]
Ultimately Malcolm X began to become more peaceful towards the end of his life. His intentions were always for African Americans to be viewed as human beings and for them to reach prosperity. His long-term struggle was understanding the complicated relationship between whites and blacks, and how each regarded one another. ‘How long is the black man going to fight for civil rights before he is first granted his human rights?’[11]
Though he provided no changes on a legislative level, his role in the civil rights movement introduced something in African Americans that no civil rights leader- not even Martin Luther King Jr incited: a feeling of pride in African culture and heritage. To credit him as being non-significant in the accomplishments of African Americans would be a disservice to the black experience. His advocacy resumed within the Black Panther movement, and even today in the Black Lives Matter movement.
Though difference in ideology separated these two civil rights leaders from ever working together, their potential if they had would’ve been unmatched. The significant amount of similarities is hardly ever recounted. Both men served as ministers in their respected faiths. Both leaders were intrigued by, and followed principles of socialism, and credited capitalism as a key component towards discrimination. Both men began to adopt global issues within their advocacy prior their assassinations. Malcolm X began advocating for overall human rights, while Martin Luther King Jr also began to strongly oppose the Vietnam war, despite his ties to President Lyndon B Johnson. Both men died tragically and abruptly at the height of their careers leaving so much left to question of what could have been. Despite the disparities of both of these men, and the different ideologies they had, both shared courage to selflessly challenge a system that had been so corruptly broken. Their most significant similarity was probably becoming the two most powerful black men America has ever witnessed.
Footnotes
[1] Jeanne Theoharis, Don’t Forget That Martin Luther King Jr. Was Once Denounced As An Extremist last modified January 12, 2018 https://time.com/5099513/martin-luther-king-day-myths/ [2] Martin Luther King Jr. I Have A Dream (1963) [3] King, Martin Luther, and Coretta Scott King. Strength To Love. 1963 (New York: Harper and Row, ) p.34. [4] Alexis Madrigal, When the Revolution was Televised Last modified April 1,2018 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2018/04/televisions-civil-rights-revolution/554639/ [5] King Jr, Martin Luther. 1964. Why We Can't Wait. New York: Harper & Row. [6] United States. Civil Rights Act of 1964. Washington: US Govt. Print Off.,1969 [7] United States. Voting Rights Act of 1965. Washington :U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1969. [8] Malcolm Little, Alex Haley, Attallah Shabazz, 1999. The Autobiography Of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books. [9]J.Herman Blake "Black Nationalism." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 382 (1969): 15-25. Accessed March 8, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/1037110. [10] Malcolm Little, Debate at The University of Oxford, 1964. [11] Little, Malcolm, Alex Haley, Attallah Shabazz. 1999. The Autobiography Of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books.
Bibliography
Civil Rights Act. 1964. Washington: US Government.
King Jr, Martin Luther I Have A Dream 1963
King, Martin Luther, and Coretta Scott King. n.d. Strength To Love. New York: Harper and Row. 1963
King Jr, Martin Luther. 1964. Why We Can't Wait. New York: Harper & Row. 1964
Blake, J. Herman. "Black Nationalism." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 382 (1969): 15-25. Accessed March 8, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/1037110.
Little, Malcolm, Alex Haley, Attallah Shabazz, M. S Handler, and Ossie Davis. 1999. The Autobiography Of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books.
Little, Malcolm The Debate at the University of Oxford. 1964
Madrigal, Alexis When the Revolution was Televised Last modified April 1,2018 https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2018/04/televisions-civil-rights-revolution/554639/ accessed February 23, 2020
Theoharis, Jeanne Don’t Forget That Martin Luther King Jr. Was Once Denounced As An Extremist last modified January 12, 2018 https://time.com/5099513/martin-luther-king-day-myths/ Last Modified January 12, 2018. accessed February 24, 2020
Voting Rights Act. 1965. Washington: U.S Government.