By Saffron Kricha
Edited by Saundarya Mitter & Mark Potter
The passing of the Equal Pay Act, the Sex Discrimination Act and the advent of the
first female prime minister made feminism redundant for women by the 1980s. Do you agree?
During the twentieth century, feminism transitioned into a fully-fledged social, political, and
cultural movement which was responsible for legislative and social changes which improved
women’s lives. The Equal Pay Act, Sex Discrimination Act and the election of Margaret
Thatcher as Prime Minister marked a momentous moment of the twentieth century, where
feminism secured greater legal equality which filtered into the public sphere. These were
extremely important and necessary steps for women and the wider feminist movement as they ensured equal pay for equal work and made discrimination based on sex in various arenas illegal.[1] However, these progressions failed to achieve the true purpose of feminism: complete equality in all areas of life. Yet, feminism since the 1980s has become more important than ever and has diversified to encompass a wider range of issues. To better understand why feminism is not redundant, it is important to interrogate the transformation of feminism since the 1980s through areas not typically covered by traditional gender studies. Feminism since the 1980s has developed to address new issues, including the position and experiences of women of colour, the history of gender identities and gender binaries. Using a less traditional approach such as this, therefore, will demonstrate that feminism is anything but redundant for women, becoming only more important and necessary since the 1980s.
Feminism of the twentieth century largely focused exclusively on the experiences of white
women. With the development of intersectional feminism, coined by Kimberle Crenshaw, the
struggles and experiences of women of colour are advocated for and encompassed within
modern-day feminism.[2] Heidi Safia Mirza explores the development of black British feminism, alongside its foundations in intersectionality, as a means to understand and tackle the gendered and racial prejudices which coalesce into structural oppressions[3] Intersectionality emerged to rival second wave feminism dominating the mid-to-late twentieth century, which failed to recognise, let alone tackle, the unique experiences of women of colour.[4]
Feminism has evolved to address the problems of Black women in higher education. Mirza is
one of the few black female professors in the United Kingdom (UK) and details how feminism has sought to confront the inequality of ethnic minorities and whites in higher education.[5] Feminism has always produced and advocated for small communities of like-minded individuals who have shared experiences, often being shared mistreatment. Black professors have been able to develop important communities which allows women to interact with others who understand their difficult experiences.[6] An example of this is the Black Female Professors Forum which was created to tackle the lack of representation of Black female professors in the UK and empower Black women at every level in academia by providing a space for collaboration, communication and consultation.[7] This is an extremely important issue as there are currently around only 350 Black female professors in the UK, out of all 18,000 professors.[8] The development of intersectional and Black feminism proves the continued necessity of feminism, as feminism had not reached its goals by the 1980s.
Arab women in Britain have been subject to a double-edged sword of prejudice. This can be
seen through the negative representations of them as lazy, backwards and subservient women, but also through the noticeable absence of their unique experiences in a multitude of arenas, including academia, politics and the workplace. The history of feminism is one of limited progression. There has been a strong move towards intersectional feminism which looks at the racialised and gendered struggles of women. However, there has been a lack of attention given to the experiences and unique struggles that Arab women face. This is consolidated by the historiography of feminism and gender. There is very little academic work that investigates Arab women’s lives alongside the achievements of feminism. This is an area of academia that needs more attention, as it is hard to understand the changes to Arab women’s lives in the public and private domain.
However, one area that has been researched is the acceptance of Arab communities in Britain. A YouGov survey in 2017 shows the deep-rooted hostilities towards British Arabs and Arab immigrants.[9] Sixty-four percent of those polled believed that Arabs had failed to integrate into British society.[10] This is important when seen alongside the desire of immigrant groups to assimilate into British life and abandon their cultural traditions.[11] Arab immigrants have often felt a pressure to adopt British cultures due to racial and sexist prejudices. However, the development of intersectional feminism has provided Arab women with the space to understand their unique experiences, dissuading them from the need to change in order to appease a host society. Feminism is grounded in the belief that individuals should accept and love themselves and so, when seen in conjunction with Arab women, they have been surrounded by messages that reaffirm their individuality. Ultimately, the lack of research into the history of Arab women in Britain is a significant failure of academia, stressing the unfinished nature of feminism by the 1980s. Nonetheless, it is clear that modern-day feminism has worked to support and uplift Arab women by countering the message of assimilation and stressing the value individuality.
Gender identity has been a central feature of gender studies. However, this has often
exclusively referred to the study of cisgender women. Thus, to reach a more comprehensive
account of the role of feminism, it is important to interrogate the relationship between feminism and the LGBTQ+ community, particularly the transgender community. Robert Mills suggests how transgender histories have often been overlooked in the historiographies of public culture or have been analysed as a sexual identity, rather than as a form of gender identification.[12] When looking at the history of transgender struggles in the UK, many of the oppressions that characterised their experiences still persist today. A report by Stonewall shows that in the twelve months preceding the survey in 2017, two in five trans people experienced a hate crime because of their gender, with four in five trans people not reporting these crimes to the police.[13] These figures are staggering, showing the persistent hostility towards the trans community within Britain and the significant need for feminism since the 1980s.
It is important to place the transgender experience within the context of historical feminist
progression. The turn of the century saw the diversification of feminism and a strong bond
between the LGBTQ+ community and the feminist movement. Feminism now strives for
equality for all minorities, including members of the LGBTQ+ community, prominently
transgender individuals. Cressida Heyes explores the relationship between feminism and
transgender identity.[14] Heyes argues that feminism strives for the breakdown of gender binaries and the oppressive structures that come with these.[15] When seen with the question of transgender identity, feminism endeavours to create safe spaces for individuals to explore their gender beyond the traditional expectations of gender conformity. Feminism works to support the queer community by showcasing the complexities and fluidity of gender identity, simultaneously defending transgender experiences and advocating for their liberation and equal treatment. Ultimately, feminism since the 1980s has developed a strong alliance with the queer community, working to project transgender experiences and defend their right for equal treatment.
When assessing gender identity in relation to feminism, it is important to explore the changing nature of masculinity. Masculinity is a complex aspect of male gender identity with
characteristics that have both persisted and changed since the 1980s. Hilary Young explored
masculinities in Glasgow through various interviews.[16] These oral histories make it possible to extract features of masculinities and observe how masculinity has changed over the twentieth century. One of the common aspects across the interviews is that masculinity was characterised by being the strong, dependable and financially superior partner within a relationship.[17] Whilst these characteristics are derived from interviews with Glaswegians, these traits are representative of western masculinity. Additionally, it is important to assess how these conceptions of masculinity affected both men and women. Feminism has shed light on the fact that certain traits of masculinity are harmful not only to women by subverting their position in society, but also to men by placing such intense expectations on their lives. Feminism since the 1980s, therefore, has been able to focus on masculinity, indicating how equality can only be achieved when men and women recognise the interlinked nature of independent struggles.
Feminism since the 1980s has diversified to question traditional gender binaries and challenge these traditional conceptions and dismantle the structures that hold them up. This is particularly true when seen through historically male-dominated arenas. Evidently, it is important to look at arenas which are often overlooked by traditional academic research, to show the dominance of gender binaries and expectations.
Since the emergence of football in the UK, there has been a strong resistance to women’s
football.[18] This has been for a multitude of reasons: the argument that women are incapable of playing, football is a ‘man’s sport’ or that women should not be able to monetise from a game that supposedly requires masculine traits.[19] This resentment to women playing the sport resulted in the ban on English women’s football in December 1921, when the FA outlawed the use of league pitches and facilities by women.[20] This had disastrous impacts on women’s football, which are still being felt today. Hence. it is clear that historically women’s football has always been perceived and presented as inferior to men’s football.
These ideas have largely persisted into the twenty-first century. There are still clear gendered
divisions between the games, including the rate of pay between professional players, access to grassroots play and opportunities to advance through the ranks. Jean Williams uncovers the gendered prejudices women footballers face, often revolving around the idea that women
should feel content with their position in a man’s sport.[21] Williams stresses that there is a
perception that professional female players should feel “privileged to wear the England shirt”
and that this should be enough and no more allowances need to be made to equalise the sport, as it is a sport made for and played by men.[22] In 2019, West Ham United Women, through a YouTube video, reacted to a variety of sexist comments they had received over social media. These included the objectification of their bodies, a comparison between their football and children’s standards and that men only watched women’s football to look at their bodies as a player had the “best bum in football”.[23] It is clear that women’s football still suffers from traditional sexist tropes. Due to this, FIFPRO is an organisation and community which bring together women from across the globe, supporting women footballers and striving for their better pay and conditions.[24] This collection of women has made great strides, including reaching an agreement with FIFA in 2019 to present Women’s World 11 at the gala in Milan as an alternative to the Men’s World 11.[25] Ultimately, feminism has been able to create strong communities between women footballers, which have subsequently been able to take great strides towards equality within such a male-dominated arena.
Another field that is often overlooked within traditional gender studies or academic discussions around feminism is the male-dominated workforce of fire and rescue services. Tamika Alana Perrott explores firefighting and the masculinities associated with the job and what this means for both men and women.[26] Firefighting is one of the most-male dominated occupations in industrialised countries, which stresses this is not just a British exception or problem, but a prevalent global issue.[27] In England, only 5.2% of firefighters are women.[28] The UK government has recognised this gendered division and has sought to diversify the workforce. They have launched a campaign, ‘Join the Team: Become a Firefighter’ which seeks to encourage more ethnic minorities and women to join the force.[29] This campaign includes challenges to current myths that surround the job, promoting the narrative that people from all backgrounds are capable of doing this job.[30]
The move towards diversifying the fire and rescue work force is about more than just equality
of numbers and inclusion targets, but is about representation, cultural inclusivity and
accountability.[31] As such, it is important to recognise how feminism has supported these moves towards greater equality and inclusion. The Women in the Fire Service was set up in the 1990s as a self-help group.[32] This is based around the ideals of feminism, including working towards greater gender equality within the workforce and providing a community where women with similar goals and experiences can convene and work together to influence the equality agenda.[33] This organisation of women in the fire and rescue service and the government plans to diversify and equalise the workforce shows the diverse nature, importance and power of feminism. Feminism, ergo, has been able to place the problem of male-dominated workforces onto the government agenda, ensuring that action is taken to work towards equality and support such communities along the way through organised spaces.
Feminism has changed significantly since the 1980s and has done so in order to place new and important gender-based issues onto the mainstream agenda. There has been a noticeable
diversification of feminism, which has allowed it to develop as a social and political movement. There is a wide-spread understanding of feminism, and its core aims, often consisting of the traditional ideas of striving for more workplace opportunities, equal pay or changes in the responsibilities of parents. Whilst these are important aspects of feminism and all contribute to the overall aim of gender equality, feminism goes beyond this. This essay has taken a non-traditional approach to the history of feminism in order to showcase its diverse modern nature. As such, by looking at women of colour, gender identities and gender binaries, it is clear that feminism has only grown in importance and power since the 1980s and continues to be anything but redundant. It is important to investigate areas of feminism that are often not explored, as it shows the power and accomplishments of the movement beyond just legislative changes. Ultimately, feminism can be seen in all aspects of life, from education, to work and to sports, and continues to support individuals. It acts as a foundation between individuals, allowing communities to form around shared experiences but also pushing for the necessary political, social and cultural changes that support the continual journey to gender equality.
Notes
[1]UK Government, Sex Discrimination Act 1975, c.65
<https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1975/65/enacted#top> [Accessed 27 April 2021]. ;
UK Government, Equal Pay Act 1970, c. 41
<https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1970/41/enacted> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[2]Harriet Hall, “A Comprehensive Guide to the Feminist Waves”, Evening Standard
<https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/international-women-s-day-a-comprehensive-guide-to-the-feminist-waves-a3780436.html> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[3]Heidi Safia Mirza with Yasmin Gunaratnam, “The Branch on Which I Sit”: Reflections on Black British Feminism, Feminist Review, 108, (2014), p. 128.
[4]Mirza, “The Branch on Which I Sit”, p. 128.
[5]Mirza, “The Branch on Which I Sit”, pp. 125-126.
[6]Mirza, “The Branch on Which I Sit”, pp. 125-126.
[7]“Black Female Professors Forum”, Black Female Professors Forum
<https://blackfemaleprofessorsforum.org> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[8]Black Female Professors Forum, [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[9]Patrick Wintour, “Survey Reveals Scale of Hostility Towards Arabs in Britain”, The Guardian (2017) <https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/sep/25/survey-reveals-scale-of-hostility-towards-arabs-in-britain> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[10]Wintour, The Guardian, [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[11]Caroline Nagel and Lynn Staeheli, “Integration and the Negotiation of ‘Here’ and ‘There’: The Case of British Arab Activists”, Social and Cultural Geography, 9, no. 4 (2009), p. 415. [12]Robert Mills, “Queer is Here? Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Histories and Public Culture”, History Workshop Journal, no. 62, (2006), p. 256.
[13]Chaka L. Bachmann and Becca Gooch, “LGBT in Britain: Trans Report”, Stonewall (2018). <https://www.stonewall.org.uk/system/files/lgbt_in_britain_trans_report_final.pdf [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[14]Cressida Heyes, “Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory: The Case of Transgender”, Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 28, no. 4 (2003), p.1093.
[15]Heyes, “Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory”, p. 1094.
[16]Hilary Young, “Hard Man, New Man: Re/Composing Masculinities in Glasgow, c. 1950-2000”, Oral History Society, 35, 1, (2007), p. 72.
[17]Young, “Hard Man, New Man”, p. 78.
[18]Eleanor Dickens, “The History of Women’s Football in the UK”, British Library, (2020).
<https://www.bl.uk/womens-rights/articles/the-history-of-womens-football-in-the-uk#> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[19]Dickens, “The History of Women’s Football in the UK” [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[20]Dickens, “The History of Women’s Football in the UK” [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[21]Jean Williams, A Game for Rough Girls? A History of Women’s Football in Britain (USA: Routledge, 2003), p. 109.
[22]Williams, A Game for Rough Girls?, p. 111.
[23]West Ham United FC, “West Ham United Women React to Sexist Tweets”, YouTube
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjFTYfZUfIA> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[24]“About FIFPRO,” FIFPRO <https://fifpro.org/en> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[25]“About FIFPRO,” FIFPRO [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[26]Tamika Alana Perrott, “Doing ‘Hot’ and ‘Dirty’ Work: Masculinities and Occupational Identity in Firefighting”, Gender, Work and Organization, 26, 10, (2019), p. 1399.
[27]Perrott, “Doing ‘Hot’ and ‘Dirty’ Work”, p. 1398.
[28]UK Home Office, “Campaign Launched for More Diverse Fire and Rescue Services”, GOV.UK <https://www.gov.uk/government/news/campaign-launched-for-more-diverse-fire-and-rescue-services> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[29]UK Home Office, “Campaign Launched for More Diverse Fire and Rescue Services”, [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[30]UK Home Office, “Campaign Launched for More Diverse Fire and Rescue Services”, [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[31]Local Government Association, An Inclusive Service: The Twenty-First Century Fire and Rescue Service <https://www.local.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/10.5%20final%20An%20Inclusive%20Service%20-%20Twenty%20first%20century%20FRS_web.pdf> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
[32]“Women in the Fire Service UK”, WFS <https://wfs.org.uk/> [Accessed 27 April 2021]. [33]“Women in the Fire Service UK”, WFS [Accessed 27 April 2021].
Bibliography
Primary Sources
“Black Female Professors Forum”. Black Female Professors Forum.
<https://blackfemaleprofessorsforum.org> [Accessed 27 April 2021]
Local Government Association. An Inclusive Service: The Twenty-First Century Fire and
Rescue Service <https://www.local.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/10.5%20final%20An%20Inclusive%20Service%20-%20Twenty%20first%20century%20FRS_web.pdf> [Accessed 27 April
2021]
UK Home Office, “Campaign Launched for More Diverse Fire and Rescue Services”,
GOV.UK <https://www.gov.uk/government/news/campaign-launched-for-more-diverse-fire-and-rescue-services> [Accessed 27 April 2021]
UK Government, Equal Pay Act 1970, c. 41 <https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1970/41/enacted> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
UK Government, Sex Discrimination Act 1975, c.65
<https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1975/65/enacted#top> [Accessed 27 April 2021]
West Ham United FC, “West Ham United Women React to Sexist Tweets”, YouTube
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjFTYfZUfIA> [Accessed 27 April 2021].
Wintour, Patrick. “Survey Reveals Scale of Hostility Towards Arabs in Britain”. The
Guardian. 2017 <https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/sep/25/survey-reveals-scale-of-hostility-towards-arabs-in-britain> [Accessed 27 April 2021]
“Women in the Fire Service UK”. WFS. <https://wfs.org.uk/> [Accessed 27 April 2021]
Secondary Sources
Alana Perrott, Tamika. “Doing ‘Hot’ and ‘Dirty’ Work: Masculinities and Occupational
Identity in Firefighting”. Gender, Work and Organization. 26/10, 2019
Bachmann, Chaka L. and Gooch, Becca. “LGBT in Britain: Trans Report”. Stonewall. 2018.
[Accessed 27 April 2021]
Dickens, Eleanor. “The History of Women’s Football in the UK”. British Library. 2020.
[Accessed 27 April 2021]
“About FIFPRO”. FIFPRO <https://fifpro.org/en> [Accessed 27 April 2021]
Hall, Harriet. “A Comprehensive Guide to the Feminist Waves”. Evening Standard
comprehensive-guide-to-the-feminist-waves-a3780436.html> [Accessed 27 April 2021]
Heyes, Cressida. “Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory: The Case of Transgender.”
Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28/4. 2003
Mills, Robert. “Queer is here? Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Histories and Public
Culture.” History Workshop Journal. 62. 2006
Nagel, Caroline and Staeheli, Lynn. “Integration and the Negotiation of ‘Here’ and ‘There’:
The Case of British Arab Activists,” Social and Cultural Geography. 9/4 2009
Safia Mirza, Heidi and Gunaratnam, Yasmin. “The Branch on Which I Sit”: Reflections on
Black British Feminism, Feminist Review, 108. 2014
Williams, Jean. A Game for Rough Girls? A History of Women’s Football in Britain. USA:
Routledge. 2003
Young, Hilary. “Hard Man, New Man: Re/Composing Masculinities in Glasgow, c. 1950-
2000”. Oral History Society. 35/1. 2007
Bình luận