Module: HST5317 Race in the United States: Slavery to Civil Rights
By: Aleksandra Nikitorowicz
Since slavery and the emergence of capitalism, Black Americans have been and always will be resisting the system. The capitalist system is inherently racist in nature as it serves to exploit a section of society for the good of the few at the top of the social and economic hierarchy. Resistance to this system is originally thought to have peaked during the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s, however Jaquelyn Dowd Halls ‘Long Civil Rights Movement’ suggests that the black struggle must be viewed in a wider context, extending from the 1930s to Barack Obama and beyond. The efforts of those before and after ‘The Civil Rights Movement’ have often been downplayed until recent years. With time, the way Black Americans have resisted the system has changed. There has been a shift from an aggressive and direct form of resistance to a more peaceful and indirect expression of resistance. Earlier forms of resistance took the form of rebellions, runaway slaves and destruction of property, as well as more passive forms such as faking an illness. ‘The Civil Rights Movement’ is associated with Martin Luther King Jr.’s (MLK) non-violent and peaceful attempt to dismantle the inherently racist system. The years following MLK are typically classed as more militant, with the Black Panthers and the Black Power Movement dominating the resistance campaigns. However, the struggle has not ended, and the Black Lives Matter Movement founded in 2013 has been branded the new Civil Rights Movement. Despite the different forms of resistance deployed by Black Americans, their aims have addressed the underlying issue that there can be no racial equality without economic justice.
Militant and direct forms of resistance were deployed by Black Americans throughout history, in times of desperation and growing resentment with the system. The Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831 saw the mobilisation of both free and unfree Black Americans, resulting in the murder of approximately sixty white Americans, women and children included. Turner’s motivations for the rebellion till this day remain a mystery, however it is assumed he was driven by a sense of revenge and desire for justice for the enslavement and oppression of Black Americans. The aggression was not well received in the South and led to the death of 120 black Americans, most of whom were not involved in the rebellion. Fear had spread in the South and stricter law codes were implemented including the denial of education for free Black Americans, leaving the majority of the black population illiterate. The divide between the North and South increased and it is suggested Turner’s rebellion expedited the coming of Civil War. Turners historical significance is mostly limited to the time immediately after his rebellion; however, he has been hailed as a symbol for freedom and his legacy lives on in the Black community.
Similar radical militant activism was seen in the four hot summers which began in 1965 with the Watts riots. The cause of city riots in America usually stem from the stopping and unlawful arrest of Black American men. In 1967, race riots engulfed 159 cities as resentment of the inherently racist system exploded. Deindustrialisation caused a reshuffle of neighbourhoods with Black Americans moving to urban areas and whites moving to the suburbs to escape black urbanisation, otherwise known as ‘white flight’. This resulted in urban areas being under-funded, plunging Black Americans into a life of poverty, whilst white suburbs were flourishing, physically separate from black neighbourhoods. Segregation was no longer a thing of the past and the resentment erupted in violence. The race riots of the 60s caused millions of dollars’ worth of destruction and left Black Americans homeless, injured and dead. However, the shock of this direct, violent action sparked an investigation, instigated by Pres. Johnson, into the cause of the riots. The investigation revealed that poverty and anti-black racism was to blame, highlighting the connection between inequality and economic justice, suggesting the system itself was racist. However, despite the good nature of the investigation little was done to prevent riots breaking out again, as America has since then faced numerous and equally significant race riots.
The impact of violent direct action typically sends shock waves through society which results in both positive and negative reactions. Violent action creates the sense of urgency for immediate change, as it suggests that those suffering can no longer withstand the oppression forced upon them. However, it can also alienate potential supporters as violence and militancy sends a radical message which can discourage support for the cause. It creates a sense of fear which is often followed by a conservative response which damages the image and the progress of the movement. The response to Turner’s rebellion is an example of such a reaction. Governor Floyd imposed harsher slave codes which denied both free and unfree Black Americans the right to education and limited their ability to congregate and travel. Nonetheless, violent action injects a sense of urgency which can instigate reform and necessary change much faster than non-violent, passive action can achieve.
Passive action in the history of black struggle has been historically associated with ‘The Civil Rights Movement’ and Martin Luther King Jr. The Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-56 has been stereotypically marked as the beginning of ‘The Civil Rights Movement’ because of the mass mobilisation that accompanied it. Rosa Park’s arrest sparked a movement which caught national and international attention which allowed the movement to grow and put economic and political pressure on Alabama to desegregate public busses. This was not the initial aim of the Montgomery Improvement Association; however, the NAACP sued the city and Browder v. Gayle ruled that segregation on busses violated the Constitution, a ruling later upheld by the Supreme Court. In Montgomery, 75% of bus riders were Black Americans and as a result of the boycott, 40,000 customers were lost, putting a massive economic strain on the bus company, forcing them to comply with federal law. Despite the desegregation of busses, Black Americans still faced physical and verbal abuse while riding, highlighting that changing the law does not correlate to the changing of attitudes. This ruling was also limited to the state of Alabama which meant segregation on public busses in most other southern states remained, limiting the impact of the boycott. However, it did successfully mobilise the masses, catch the attention of the media and set a peaceful, non-violent tone for ‘The Civil Rights Movement’. The Birmingham Campaign of 1963 had a similar but far reaching impact. The violence peaceful protesters encountered, horrified the nation and gained the attention of the media. Martin Luther King Jr purposefully picked Birmingham as it was notoriously racist and deeply segregated, therefore, would provoke the violent reaction he hoped for. Through eliciting a violent reaction to a peaceful protest, Martin Luther King Jr was able to evoke sympathy from the public, for the brutal attacks on the peaceful protesters. By provoking an emotional response from the public, the movement was able to gain support as it portrayed the white supremacists’ actions as unreasonable in response to peaceful protests. This resulted in a growth of support for the ‘Civil Rights Movements’ and the events in Birmingham expedited the coming of the Voting Rights Act and Civil Rights Act of 1964, two monumental moments in American history.
Peaceful, passive action throughout the history of the black struggle has proven to be successful. Unlike violent action, it does not alienate and disillusion potential supporters. In the case of Martin Luther King Jr, non-violent actions generated an emotional response as the nation witnessed the violence faced by peaceful protesters. This allowed pressure to come from the public rather than the movement directly, which gradually saw public opinion siding with the ‘Civil Rights Movement’. Passive action is most commonly used to achieve goals oriented around political change, Martin Luther King Jr’s ‘first phase’ of ‘The Civil Rights Movement’, changing the law and legally abolishing segregation. The ‘second phase’ was to be “economic justice” which would target the North and systematic racism in a more militant way. This form of resistance generates the most sympathy and support from the public however, it takes much longer to achieve its goals and mobilise support, yet it does not receive the backlash violent action does. Passive resistance in the era of ‘The Civil Rights’ placed Martin Luther King Jr as the strong, charismatic leader of the movement, however, grassroots campaigners are often overlooked because of the focus on Martin Luther King Jr and the centralised nature of the movement. Women played key roles in promoting social changes such as Johnnie Tillmon, who helped reform the welfare system. However, the stories of grassroots activists have been marginalised because of the conventional definition of what the Civil Rights Movement was and when it occurred.
Modern resistance deployed by Black Americans has changed due to the rise of technology and social media. The Black Lives Matter (BLM) Movement gained momentum in 2013 with the help of social media after the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting of Trayvon Martin, a Black American teenager. BLM is a response against “state-sanctioned violence and anti-black racism” with the aim to connect “Black people from all over the world” including those who had been marginalised in previous black struggle movements. The movement is rooted in poor areas where injustice and inequality are felt the strongest, giving Black Americans a space where they can be themselves, unapologetically. As a result of BLM and other modern social activism, modern forms of resistance, four reports by the Department of Justice have confirmed widespread police corruption in Ferguson, Baltimore, Cleveland and Chicago, forced the resignation of the Pres. of the University of Missouri after his failure to deal with racism on campus. Unlike previous mass movements dedicated to improving the lives of Black Americans, BLM has no leader, it is a decentralised movement which does not claim to represent the voices of all Black Americans through a single figure. This opens up the movement to those who have been previously marginalised, making it more inclusive thus gaining more support. The scale of BLM and its decentralised nature, however, creates an ideological blur, making the message of the movement less clear than previous forms of resistance. The rejection of religion by BLM has also alienated some older generations, who are stereotypically more religious, and, in their youth, experienced black struggle movements centred around religion.
Social activism has been made possible through the rise of social media and the digital revolution. It is easier now, more than ever to mobilise the masses because of the wide accessibility to the internet which allows a movements message to spread and reach more people faster. However, online activism does not always correlate into real life action, making a movement seem deceivingly bigger. Social online activism also excludes older generations who may not have access to technology, making the movement primarily youth and young adult centred. This, however, is a change from the conventional black struggle movements which have typically been older and male dominated, giving the youth and those who have been marginalised previously an opportunity to not only take part in the struggle but also raise awareness for their own struggle. Online, social activism is the new form of resistance which allows new voices to be heard and promote the cause faster than ever before.
In conclusion, the techniques of resistance deployed by Black Americans during the continuing struggle for liberation have shifted from aggressive action to more passive and social activism. Despite the stark contrast in forms of resistance, all acts of defiance have had the same goal in common, to liberate Black Americans from the inherently oppressive system, designed to make the majority poor and the minority prosper. Militant and violent acts of resistance throughout the history of the black struggle have injected a sense of urgency into society as the radical reaction suggests the need for immediate change. However, such acts of resistance have the ability to alienate potential supporters by using too radical and violent techniques. Compared to passive, non-violent resistance, militancy has often aroused a reaction much faster, whether it be positive or negative. ‘The Civil Rights Movement’ has been characterised as an era of peaceful resistance to segregation and racism, which facilitated the passing of monumental laws. The passing of new laws on the surface appears like a success, however, it does not necessarily mean that attitudes have changed, as racism still persists, despite the seemingly anti-racist laws. Changing laws in an inherently racist system does not directly address the problem, it creates an illusion that the black struggle is being solved. However, passive activism is able to mobilise the masses better than violence as it can evoke emotion, which gains sympathy from the public, thus making them more likely to support the cause and put pressure on institutions to instigate change. Online, social activism has emerged as the conventional modern-day form of resistance as it can quickly mobilise whilst preventing the marginalisation of voices, appearing to be the best form of resistance. Nonetheless, forms of resistance will continue until America’s inherently racist capitalist system has been toppled.
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